Church Chronology

These are excerpts from an sometimes suspect church chronology. It represents a lot of work, even if it is biased against the Catholic Church. Take the Catholic bits (and more) with a grain of salt.

212 Full citizenship extended to all free inhabitants of the empire.

231 A private house in the city of Dura-Europas on the Euphrates [Syria] was adapted for Christian worship. This is the earliest known example of a church with religious pictures on the walls. The art appears to have been influenced by similar work in a synagogue in the same city. Depicted on frescoes are Adam and Eve, the Good Shepherd and his flock, the Samaritan woman at the well, Christ walking on the water, the raising of Lazarus, the resurrection of Christ, the healing of the paralytic and David’s victory over Goliath.

241 End of the records of the Fratres Arvales. This was a pagan priesthood or college in Rome which offered annual sacrifices for the fertility of farmlands.

244 Plotinus, a pagan from Egypt, opened a school in Rome. Plotinus’ philosophy emphasized the transcendence of God, and His incomprehensibility (due to His simplicity). Nous is emanated from God and contains ideas of both classes and individuals. The two Souls (corresponding to Plato’s World Soul) proceed from the Nous. [The interpretation of Plotinus which sees Nous and Soul as emanated has been questioned by modern philosophers - in particular, see Lloyd Gerson’s Plotinus.] Material creation exists at the bottom of this chain and is the principle of evil. Curiously, Plotinus criticized the Gnostics for their contempt for material reality, considering it worthy of high value as the image of intelligible reality. Plotinus taught that the soul can rise to union with God through purification, the rejection of sense perception in favor of philosophy and science, a stage which is beyond discursive thought, and a final stage of mystical union which is beyond separation. Vladimir Lossky points out that whereas Plotinus viewed union as simplicity and the removal of distinction, Christian mysticism sees God’s incomprehensibility as due not to His simplicity, but as absolute, and thus union with God is a “going forth from being as such.” Plotinus died in 269 or 270. His chief disciple was Porphyry, a critic of Christianity, who offered Neoplatonism as a cultured alternative to Christianity among the upper classes.

251 A plague, most likely measles, arrived in the western Roman empire. It continued for about 15 years, though the worst was over by 260. At one point 5000 people died of measles a day in Rome.

251 Two rival candidates vied for the vacant see of Rome. Novatian, a priest who had been prominent in the church since Fabian’s death, held that the church cannot forgive or accept those guilty of murder, adultery or apostasy. Cornelius, (251-53, reportedly a less capable man) held that the bishop could remit even grave sin. Novatian’s view was foreshadowed by that of Hippolytus and Tertullian against Callistus (see 217). Cornelius had precedence in Paul’s treatment of the incestuous Corinthian and in Irenaeus’ view that an adulterous Christian woman could be restored by repentance.

252 A plague struck North Africa. The Christians feared that this would be interpreted by the pagans that “the gods” were angered and would lead to a renewal of Decius’ persecution.

256 The Franks crossed the Rhine.

256 The Persians under Shapur I sacked Antioch in Syria.

257 8th Persecution of the Church, under Valerian (253-259). Edicts were published demanding outward conformity with paganism and Christians were forbidden to hold worship services, under penalty of death. In 258, Valerian began to put the clergy to death - St. Cyprian was martyred in that year. He also attacked prominent laymen, but remitted the death penalty in exchange for a denial of Christ. The persecution continued through 260. Given the troubles of the day, Valerian had sought to foretell the future via human sacrifice and other rites. When his efforts failed, blame fell on the Christians within the imperial family. Thus, his desire to restore the efficacy of pagan religious efforts motivated Valerian’s persecution.

258 On June 29 of this year, the remains of Sts. Peter and Paul were transferred to the ad Catacumbos on the Appian way. The feast of Saints Peter and Paul in the Roman calendar dates from this year and commemorates this event.

258 Cyprian was brought back from exile, tried, and executed.

258 Xystus II (Sixtus II), bishop of Rome (257-58), was arrested while saying mass in the catacombs. He was executed, along with his deacons.

258 The Alemanni pushed through the Alps into the Po River valley. As a result, Verona, Como and Aquileia were fortified with stone from tombs.

258 From this year, a feast of Peter and Paul was celebrated in Rome on June 29.

261 The emperor Gallenius proclaimed toleration for Christians by edict. This, in response to petitions from Christian bishops, also restored confiscated churches and cemeteries. Before this time, churches could not own property, since Christianity was illegal. Churches now began to receive money and property bequeathed in wills.

262 The temple of Artemis in Ephesus destroyed by Gothic invaders.

268 The Juthurigi and the Alemanni advanced to within 70 miles of Rome in this year, and again in 270. In consequence, a high wall was built around Rome.

269 The Goths invaded the Balkans. Romans defeated them at Naissus.

270 Goths were permitted to settle in Dacia (that is, the territory north of the Danube). The emperor Aurelian withdrew Roman rule from Dacia.

274 Born in southern Babylonia, Mani (216-274) died after being imprisoned by the Persian emperor, Bahram I, at the instigation of Zoroastrian priests. Mani was the founder of Manichaeanism, a religion which was to rival Christianity for adherents, reaching Rome early in the fourth century. A gnostic religion, Manichaeanism held that matter is intrinsically evil, the prison of the soul. Salvation was through gnosis, an inner illumination in which the soul gained knowledge of God. The righteous went to paradise at death, but the wicked (those who procreate, own possessions, drink wine, etc.) are reborn. Good and evil were independent principles, and both were held to continue indefinitely.

274-5 The Emperor Aurelian (270-75) promoted Sun worship as the official cult of the empire.

286 Diocletian divided the empire into East and West. He appointed Maximian Augustus in the West. The capital in the East was Nicomedia; in the West, Milan. A subordinate, called a Caesar, was appointed for each Augustus. Their cities were Trier in the West and Salonica in the East.

300 Before about 300, most books were in the form of scrolls. Scrolls had severe limitations. For instance, a book the size of Matthew’s gospel would fit on a scroll. A codex, formed by folding sheets of papyrus or vellumin the middle and sewing them together at the spine, could contain much larger works. Codices also eased the task of locating a given passage. Around 600, the words in books were separated by a space -- a development associated with the Irish. In around 800, the Carolingians introduced punctuation marks.

Empires, Roman and American

The noted anti-Islamic blogger Fjordman has an interesting article at Global Politician. The guy may be wrong but you can't say he doesn't research and think through his material.

However, in the midst of setting up his argument against Islam being able to incorporate Greek philosophy - oil and water - he slides over some interesting parallels between Rome and the United States.

As Bamford Parkes states, “A civilization is not to be condemned solely because it fails to produce any important art, but a lack of artistic creativity is likely to indicate some more general failure of vitality. It is the function of art to sharpen human perceptions and sensibilities, to communicate an awareness of the values and significances inherent in human experience, and thereby to enrich man's understanding and enhance his capacity for enjoyment. That a society has become incapable of original self-expression means that it is deficient both in the apprehension of reality and in the power of appreciation. A society without good art is likely to succumb to a pervasive ennui and sense of futility and oppression, and to turn for stimulation to violent and morally shocking forms of entertainment. Only a people devoid of aesthetic sensitivity could have developed such a passion for watching gladiators. The strongest impression conveyed by the art of the early empire is that it was the product of an immense boredom. This is the simplest explanation for the decline of Roman civilization and may also be the truest.”

The great city of Rome was founded in the eighth century BC, according to legend in 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. At the heart of Rome is the giant amphitheater known as the Colosseum. Completed in AD 80 it could take 50,000 spectators. It remains visually impressive and resembles modern sports arenas of the twenty-first century, except that the ancient spectators didn’t watch football but deadly hand-to-hand combats between gladiators or contests between men and animals. The word gladiator for the professional combatants of ancient Rome comes from the Latin for “swordsman” (gladius means “sword”). While the origins of this tradition are not entirely clear, they may have roots dating back to rituals performed at the funerals of the Etruscans, the peoples who inhabited parts of the Italian Peninsula before the Romans and influenced Roman culture. Gladiator shows were given in many towns and cities in the Empire besides Rome. They fell out of favor with the rise of Christianity as the official Roman religion, but the decline was gradual.

Roman politics, too, were frequently brutal. Caesar died at a meeting of the Senate, killed by senators. Pompey and Cicero died violent deaths at the hands of their political rivals. After the Republic, the cruelties of the emperors Nero and Caligula became legend. There is undeniably something dark about a culture where families go to watch people get killed for enjoyment.

And now think about our slasher movies, games, and even the generally awful architecture and city planning in America, where ugly isn't even noticed. Here's a New York Times article noting that the Virginia Tech killings didn't put a dent into the sales figures for Hostel II, where college students are tortured to death - violence is pretty much part of our culture. Heck. Guns don't even seem to help...